The Navajos, the Hopis and the Zunis
Hopi means "peaceful people," they live in north central Arizona on a formation called Black Mesa and are spread out in villages on three Mesas along Highway 264 and are numbered from east to west, the First Mesa with the villages of Walpi, Tewa and Sichomovi, the Second Mesa with the villages of Shongopavi, Mishongnovi and Shipaulavi, and the Third Mesa with those of Hotevilla, Bacavi, Moencopi, Kykotsmovi and Oraibi which was built before 1150 AD which is the oldest still occupied village in the United States. The 252,000 hectare Hopi reservation is an enclave since it is surrounded by the Navajo reservation. Their language is a Shoshone language of the Uto-Aztecan family. Hopi is related to Pima, Ute and Paiute, in the southwest. They are a farming people living on arid soil, but they have adapted to this desert environment, small water sources at the foot of the Mesas help irrigate their crops and when they are not busy with field work, they are plumbers, electricians, mechanics or equipment workers.
The Hopi have an individualistic temperament. When the Spanish attempted to convert them to Catholicism, they killed the priests and rallied with the Pueblo Indians, and all the villages joined the revolt. A few years later, the Spanish returned, but they did not count on the resistance of these people and were forced to give up a second time. The Hopi are united by their religion, and it is this religion that has helped them preserve their ancestral way of life.
They celebrate numerous ceremonies in the plazas, some of which are forbidden to outsiders, others are open to tourists, such as the Snake Dance. Each village has several kivas, which are sacred ceremonial chambers. It is here, hidden from view, that the men celebrate their secret rites. Hopi kivas are rectangular in shape, oriented along a north-south axis. The village of Oraibi has 13, and the Hopi own 33 kivas in total. No visitors are allowed to observe a ceremony inside these sacred chambers.
The Navajo call themselves "Dineh," which means "Humans." The name Navajo comes from the Tewa term "Navahuu," which refers to a cultivated field in an arroyo (a channel that connects two streams). The Navajo territory covers 71,000 km² and its population is approximately 300,000. They own electric power plants in Shiprock, New Mexico, Fort Defiance, and Page, Arizona. Infrastructure is extensive: 150 private and public schools, 6 hospitals, 7 health centers, and 14 treatment centers, with more under construction. They run Navajo Community College, the first college ever established on an Indian reservation. They have an excellent network of tribal parks; they created Monument Valley Tribal Park. It is south of Window Rock, their administrative capital, in Tse Bonito Tribal Park that the sandstone monoliths called Haystacks can be seen. Between Arizona and Utah lies the 900,000-hectare Lake Powell Navajo Tribal Park. To the west and south, bordering Grand Canyon National Park, is the 144,000-hectare Grand Canyon Navajo Tribal Park, which stretches across the breathtaking Colorado River Gorge. Not to be forgotten is Canyon de Chelly, still inhabited by the Navajo.
During the Civil War, the U.S. government sought to incorporate New Mexico and Arizona into the Union. It therefore sought to put an end to raids by the Mescalero Apaches and Navajos. In 1863, General Carleton dispatched Colonel Christopher Carson to round up the Navajos and deport them to a new reservation in eastern New Mexico at Fort Sumner (or Bosque Redondo). In 1864, 8,000 Navajos began the Long Walk, a very dark event in their history. About 1,000 prisoners died on this 500-km journey on foot. Those who complained of fatigue or illness, as well as women about to give birth, were executed. Fort Sumner was a grave for many of them, with insufficient food and blankets, and epidemics raging. In 1868, they were given the choice of moving to the Oklahoma Indian Territory or returning to their former territory in the Southwest, and they went to the Southwest.
Many Navajos were recruited during World War II, over 15,000, to work in industry and on the railroads, and 3,600 served in the military. The Navajo language was used as "code talkers" because it is a complex, difficult-to-understand language and was, at the time, an unwritten language. It has been estimated that fewer than 30 non-Navajos could understand the language.
Located 70 km south of Gallup, Zuni is the largest Pueblo in New Mexico. The Zuni are believed to be direct descendants of the Anasazi. Its population is approximately 10,000, and the reservation covers 162,800 hectares located in McKinley County. Zuni is the only remaining village of the legendary Seven Cities of Cibola. The Pueblo has not changed much since the mid-19th century, and many women still bake their bread in adobe ovens outside. On their territory, there are many remains dating back 600 or 700 years. The Zuni are a neutral people who do not concern themselves with conflicts and wars, which is why they resist the changes taking place around them.
When the first Spanish settlers arrived in 1539, the Zuni had been roaming the region for five centuries. Estevanico and a handful of armored soldiers headed toward Zuni Pueblo, but the Indians were waiting for them, set a trap, and captured Estevanico, killing him the next day. The following year, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado arrived with about 100 men and defeated the Zuni at the Battle of Hawikuh. During the Pueblo Uprising of 1680, more than 2,500 Zuni joined the rebels to drive out the Spanish.
The lives of the Zuni people have changed greatly since the arrival of white men, but their religion has been little influenced. Zuni life revolves entirely around religion, and the sun represents the supreme god. The most spectacular ceremony is the Shalakos Kachina ceremony, which takes place in late November. Part of the ritual is open to outsiders. Shalakos are personalizations of sacred Kachinas. Few ceremonies are as ancient as this one, which reflects the invincible faith of the Zuni people.